Marine litter as a vector for fouling species in Iceland
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1590/Keywords:
Plastic, Land-based sources, Management strategies, Beached litter, Monitoring, Fishing industry, Mismanaged wasteAbstract
Marine litter has become a significant environmental issue with increasing evidence of its impact on oceans
and coastal areas across the planet. This study focuses on the distribution and composition of marine litter in
three regions of Iceland - Southwest, Westfjords and Northeast - and on marine litter as a vector for fouling
species. The results of this study show that plastic litter was the most abundant type of both fouled and nonfouled marine litter. The beach surveys showed that land-based sources, such as mismanaged waste, were
the primary contributors to beach pollution. In contrast, most fouled litter, such as fishing gear, originated from
sea-based sources. Over 79,000 individuals belonging to at least 92 species were found on fouled litter at the
eight surveyed sites. The Southwest had the highest abundance and the most fouled litter collected. However,
the Westfjords had the highest diversity and species evenness. The phyla of the fouling species found included
Annelida, Arthropoda, Bryozoa, Chordata, Cnidaria and Mollusca. Cnidaria exhibited the highest fouling
percentage in the Southwest and Northeast regions, whereas Annelida had the highest fouling percentage in the
Westfjords. Statistically significant relationships were found between species richness and region, abundance
and region, material type, and surface rugosity and thickness. These findings highlight how fouling species can
be transported via marine litter and underscore the need to continue monitoring marine litter in Iceland and
implement management strategies to reduce its impact on the marine and coastal environment.
References
Allen, J. D., Reitzel, A. M. & Jaeckle, W. 2017. Asexual
Reproduction of marine invertebrate embryos and
larvae. In: Carrier, T., Reitzel, A. M. & Heyland, A. (eds.)
Evolutionary Ecology of Marine Invertebrate Larvae.
Oxford, Academic Press.
Aretoulaki, E., Ponis, S., Plakas, G. & Agalianos, K. 2020.
Α systematic meta-review analysis of review papers in
the marine plastic pollution literature. Marine Pollution
Bulletin, 161, 111690. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
marpolbul.2020.111690
Bergmann, M., Collard, F., Fabres, J., Gabrielsen, G. W.,
Provencher, J. F., Rochman, C. M., van Sebille, E. &
Tekman, M. B. 2022. Plastic pollution in the Arctic.
Nature Reviews Earth & Environment, 3, 323–337. DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-022-00279-8
Berning, B. 2006. The cheilostome bryozoan fauna from
the late miocene of niebla (Guadalquivir Basin, SW
Spain): environmental and biogeographic implications.
Mitteilungen Des Geologisch-Paläontologischen
Instituts der Universität Hamburg, 90, 7–156.
Bluhm, B., Gebruk, A., Gradinger, R., Hopcroft, R.,
Huettmann, F., Kosobokova, K., Sirenko, B. &
Weslawski, J. 2011. Arctic marine biodiversity: an
update of species richness and examples of biodiversity
change. Oceanography, 24, 232–248. DOI: https://doi.
org/10.5670/oceanog.2011.75
Bouillon, J., Boero, F., Gravili, C., Pages, F. & Gili, J.-M.
An introduction to hydrozoa. Paris, Muséum
national d’Histoire naturelle.
Bressy, C. & Lejars, M. 2014. Marine fouling: an overview.
Journal of Ocean Technology, 9, 19–28.
Brown, F. D. & Swalla, B. J. 2012. Evolution and development
of budding by stem cells: ascidian coloniality as a case
study. Developmental Biology, 369(2), 151–162. DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ydbio.2012.05.038
Buckeridge, J. & Reeves, J. 2009. Some insights into how
barnacles survive as sessile organisms. Integrative
Zoology, 4(4), 395–401. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/
j.1749-4877.2009.00145.x
CAFF (Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna). 2010.
Arctic biodiversity trends 2010: selected indicators of
change. Akureyri, Ásprent Stell.
Canning-Clode, J., Freitas, R., Barry, P., Broeg, K., Carlton,
J., Copp, G., Davison, P., Gizzi, F., Lehtiniemi, M.,
Monteiro, J., Ramalhosa, P., Rech, S., Ros, M., Ruiz, G.,
Therriault, T., Thiel, M. & Radeta, M. 2023. Introducing
‘DeNIS’: a global database on anthropogenic marine
Debris and Non-Indigenous Species. Authorea. DOI:
https://doi.org/10.22541/au.168381770.04204050/v1
De-la-torre, G. E., Dioses-salinas, D. C., Pérez-baca,
B. L., Millones Cumpa, L. A., Pizarro-ortega, C. I.,
Torres, F. G., Gonzales, K. N. & Santillán, L. 2021.
Marine macroinvertebrates inhabiting plastic litter in
Peru. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 167. DOI: https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.112296
De-la-torre, G. E, Arribasplata, M. B. R., Roman, V.
A. L., Póvoa, A. A. & Walker, T. R. 2023. Marine
litter colonization: methodological challenges and
recommendations. Frontiers Marine Science, 10. DOI:
https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2023.1070575
Derraik, J. G. B. 2002. The pollution of the marine
environment by plastic debris: a review. Marine Pollution
Bulletin, 44(9), 842–852. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/
S0025-326X(02)00220-5
Eriksen, M., Cowger, W., Erdle, L. M., Coffin, S., VillarrubiaGómez, P., Moore, C. J., Carpenter, E, J., Day R, H.,
Thiel, M. & Wilcox, C. 2023. A growing plastic smog, now
estimated to be over 170 trillion plastic particles afloat
in the world’s oceans: urgent solutions required. PLOS
One, 18(3):e0281596. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/
journal.pone.0281596
Eriksson, C., Burton, H., Fitch, S., Schulz, M. & Van den
hoff, J. 2013. Daily accumulation rates of marine debris
on sub-Antarctic island beaches. Marine Pollution
Bulletin, 66, 199–208. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/
journal.pone.0281596
Eiríksson, J. & Símonarson, L. A. 2021. Atlantic mollusc
migration: Pliocene Inter-Ocean gateway archives on
Tjörnes, north Iceland. New York, Springer.
Enrichetti, F., Bavestrello, G., Betti, F., Rindi, F., Tregrosso,
A. & Bo, M. 2021. Fate of lost fishing gears: experimental
evidence of biofouling colonization patterns from the
northwestern Mediterranean Sea. Environmental Pollution,
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115746
Fernandez, L., Kaiser, B. & Vestergaard, N. 2014. Marine
invasive species in the Arctic. Copenhagen, Nordic
Council of Ministers.
Galgani, F. 2015. Marine litter, future prospects for
research. Frontiers in Marine Science, 2. DOI: https://
doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2015.00087
Gili, J.-M. & Hughes, R. G. 1995. The ecology of marine
benthic hydroids. London, UCL Press.
Marine litter and fouling species
Ocean and Coastal Research 2024, v72:e24076 16
Solloway et al.
Gíslason, S., Guls, H. D., Halldórsson, H. P. 2017.
Bryozoan diversity at a coastal site of southern
Reykjanes peninsula, SW-Iceland. Icelandic Ecological
Conference, Hólar, Iceland. 28–29th of April 2017.
Gregory, M. R. 2009. Environmental implications of plastic
debris in marine settings—entanglement, ingestion,
smothering, hangers-on, hitch-hiking and alien
invasions. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences, 364, 2013–2025. DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2008.0265
Hageman, S. J., Bock, P. K., Bone, Y. & McGowran, B. 1998.
Bryozoan growth habits: classification and analysis.
Journal of Paleontology, 72(3), 418–436.
Hammer, J., Kraak, M. & Parsons, J. 2012. Plastics in
the marine environment: the dark side of a modern
gift. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and
Toxicology, 220, 1–44.
Hayward, P. J. 1985. Ctenostome bryozoans: keys and
notes for the identification of the species. London,
Linnean Society of London.
Hayward, P. J. & Ryland, J. S. 1979. British ascophoran
bryozoans: keys and notes for the identification of the
species. London, Linnean Society of London.
Hayward, P. J., & Ryland, J. S. 1985. Cyclostome bryozoans:
keys and notes for the identification of the species.
London, Linnean Society of London.
Hayward, P. J. & Ryland, J. S. 1990a. The marine fauna
of the British Isles and north-west Europe: volume 1:
Introduction and protozoans to arthropods. Oxford,
Clarendon Press.
Hayward, P. J. & Ryland, J. S. 1990b. The marine fauna
of the British Isles and north-west Europe: volume 2:
Molluscs and chordates. Oxford, Clarendon Press.
Hayward, P. J. & Ryland, J. S. 1999. Cheilostomatous
bryozoa: part 2, Hippothooidea celleporoidea: notes for
the identification of British species. London, Linnean
Society of London.
He, P. & Suuronen, P. 2018. Technologies for the marking
of fishing gear to identify gear components entangled
on marine animals and to reduce abandoned, lost or
otherwise discarded fishing gear. Marine Pollution
Bulletin, 129(1), 253–261. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
marpolbul.2018.02.033
Hirose, E. & Sensui, N. 2021. Substrate selection of
ascidian larva: wettability and nano-structures. Journal
of Marine Science and Engineering, 9(6), 634. DOI:
https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9060634
Jambeck, J. R., Geyer, R., Wilcox, C., Siegler, T. R.,
Perryman, M., Andrady, A., Narayan, R. & Law, K. L.
Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean.
Science, 347(6223), 768–771. DOI: https://doi.
org/10.1126/science.1260352
Kannan, G., Mghili, B., Di Martino, E. & Sanchez-Vidal,
B. F. 2023. Increasing risk of invasions by organisms
on marine debris in the Southeast coast of India.
Marine Pollution Bulletin, 195, 115469. DOI: https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.115469
Kiessling, T., Gutow, L. & Thiel, M. 2015. Marine litter as
habitat and dispersal vector. In: Bergmann, M., Gutow,
L. & Klages, M. Marine Anthropogenic Litter (pp. 141–
. Cham, Springer. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-
-319-16510-3_6
Margalef, R. 1958. Information theory in ecology. In: General
Systems: Yearbook of the International Society for the
Systems Sciences. [S. l.], Hassell Street PressMeijer,
L. J. J., Van Emmerik, T., Van Der Ent, R., Schmidt, C.
& Lebreton, L. 2021. More than 1000 rivers account for
% of global riverine plastic emissions into the ocean.
Science Advances, 7(18). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/
sciadv.aaz5803
Mehlhart, D. G. & Blepp, M. 2012. Study on land-sourced
litter (LSL) in the marine environment: review of sources
and literature. Freiburg, Öko-Institut e.V.
Mghili, B., De-la-torre, G. E., Analla, M. & Aksissou, M.
Marine macroinvertebrates fouled in marine
anthropogenic litter in the Moroccan Mediterranean.
Marine Pollution Bulletin, 185. DOI: https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2022.114266
Micael, J., Denisenko, N., Gíslason, S., Guðmundsson,
G., Kuklinski, P. & Rodrigues, P. 2022. Diversity of
Bryozoa in Iceland. Polar Biology, 45. DOI: https://doi.
org/10.1007/s00300-022-03078-5
Munk, T., Kane, D. & Yebra, D. M. 2009. The effects of
corrosion and fouling on the performance of ocean-going
vessels: a naval architectural perspective. In: Hellio, C &
Yebra, D. Advances in Marine Antifouling Coatings and
Technologies (pp. 148–176). Amsterdam, Elsevier.
OSPAR Commission. 2020. CEMP guidelines for marine
monitoring and assessment of beach litter. [S. l.].
Pechenik, J. A. 2015. Biology of the invertebrates. New
York, McGraw-Hill.
Pham, C. K., Ramirez-llodra, E., Alt, C. H. S., Amaro, T.,
Bergmann, M., Canals, M., Company, J. B., Davies, J.,
Duineveld, G., Galgani, F., Howell, K., Huvenne, V. A.
I., Isidro, E., Jones, D. O. B., Lastras, G., Morato, T.,
Gomes-pereira, J. N., Purser, A., Stewart, H., Tojeira,
I., Tubau, X., Van Rooij, D. & Tyler, P. A. 2014. Marine
litter distribution and density in european seas, from the
shelves to deep basins. PLOS One, 9. DOI: https://doi.
org/10.1371/journal.pone.0095839
Pielou, E. C. 1966. The measurement of diversity in
different types of biological collections. Journal of
Theoretical Biology, 13, 131–144. DOI: https://doi.
org/10.1016/0022-5193(66)90013-0
Pinochet, J., Urbina, M. A. & Lagos, M. E. 2020. Marine
invertebrate larvae love plastics: habitat selection and
settlement on artificial substrates. Environmental Pollution,
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113571
Póvoa, A. A., Skinner, L. F. & De Araújo, F. V. 2021.
Fouling organisms in marine litter (rafting on abiogenic
substrates): a global review of literature. Marine
Pollution Bulletin, 166. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
marpolbul.2021.112189
Rech, S., Borrell, Y. & Garcia-Vazquez, E. 2016. Marine
litter as a vector for non-native species: what we need
to know. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 113(1-2), 40-43. DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.08.032
Rech, S., Borrell Pichs, Y. J. & García-Vazquez, E. 2018.
Anthropogenic marine litter composition in coastal
Marine litter and fouling species
Ocean and Coastal Research 2024, v72:e24076 17
Solloway et al.
areas may be a predictor of potentially invasive rafting
fauna. PLOS One, 13. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/
journal.pone.0191859
Rzhavsky, A., Kupriyanova, E. & Sikorski, A. 2018. Field
guide to calcareous tubeworms (polychaeta, serpulidae)
of the Arctic Ocean. Moscow, KMK Scientific Press.
Ryland, J. S. & Hayward, P. J. 1977. British anascan
bryozoans: Cheilostomata, anasca: keys and notes
for the identification of the species. London, Linnean
Society of London.
Schuchert, P. 2000. Hydrozoa (Cnidaria) of Iceland collected
by the BIOICE programme. Sarsia North Atlantic Marine
Science, 85(5-6), 411–438.
Schuchert, P. 2001. Hydroids of Greenland and Iceland
(Cnidaria, Hydrozoa). Copenhagen, The Danish Polar
Center.
Shabani, F., Nasrolahi, A. & Thiel, M. 2019. Assemblage
of encrusting organisms on floating anthropogenic
debris along the northern coast of the Persian
Gulf. Environmental Pollution, 254. DOI: https://doi.
org/10.7146/mogbiosci.v53.142616
Shannon, C. & Weaver, W. 1963. The mathematical theory
of communication. Chicago, University of Illinois Press.
Simpson, E. H. 1949. Measurement of Diversity. Nature,
, 688–688. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/163688a0
Souto, J., Reverter-gil, O. & Ostrovsky, A. N. 2014. New
species of Bryozoa from Madeira associated with
rhodoliths. Zootaxa, 3795, 135–151.
Strand, J., Tairova, Z., Danielsen, J., Hansen, J. W. E. A.,
Magnusson, K., Naustvoll, L. J. & Sørensen, T. K. 2015.
Marine litter in nordic waters. Copenhagen, Nordic
Council of Ministers.
Thiel, M. & Gutow, L. 2005. The Ecology of Rafting in the
Marine Environment. II. The Rafting Organisms and
Community. Oceanography and Marine Biology, 43,
–418.
UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme). 2009.
Marine litter: a global challenge. Gigiri Nairobi.
Velander, K. & Mocogni, M. 1999. Beach litter sampling
strategies: is there a ‘best’ method? Marine Pollution
Bulletin, 38(12), 1134–1140. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/
S0025-326X(99)00143-5
Winston, J. E., Gregory, M. R. & Stevens, L. M. 1997.
Encrusters, epibionts, and other biota associated
with pelagic plastics: a review of biogeographical,
environmental, and conservation issues. In: Coe, J. M.
& Rogers, D. B. (eds.) Marine Debris: Sources, Impacts,
and Solutions (pp. 81-97). New York: Springer.
Worm, B., Lotze, H. K., Jubinville, I., Wilcox, C. & Jambeck,
J. 2017. Plastic as a persistent marine pollutant. Annual
Review of Environment and Resources, 42, 1–26.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Ocean and Coastal Research is an open-access journal available through SciELO (Scientific Electronic Library Online).
Ocean and Coastal Research journal title abbreviation is Ocean Coast. Res. and should be used in footnotes, references, and bibliographic entries.
All Ocean and Coastal Research scientific articles are freely available without charge to the user or institution. In accordance with the BOAI definition of open access, all contents are available to readers free of charge. Users may read, download, copy, and link to the full texts of the articles. They may be used for any lawful purpose without prior authorization from the publisher or the author, as long as proper credit is given to the original publication.
All Ocean and Coastal Research published scientific articles receive an individual Digital Object Identifier (DOI) persistent digital document identification.
All the content of the journal, except where otherwise noted, is licensed under a Creative Commons License type BY. Authors retain the copyright and full publishing rights without restrictions.
More information on intellectual property can be found here and on Scielo's Open Acess Statement.
Ocean and Coastal Research is listed in Publons and reviewers and editors can add their verified peer review and editing history to their Publons profile.
Ocean and Coastal Research is indexed in the Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ) and complies with principles of transparency and best practice for scholarly publications.
Ocean and Coastal Research is committed to the best standards in open-access publishing by adopting ethical and quality standards throughout the publishing process - from initial manuscript submission to the final article publication. This ensures authors that their work will have visibility, accessibility, reputation, usage, and impact in a sustainable model of scholarly publishing.
